'Hark the Glad Sound': Music as Worship in Two New Forest Parishes (Highlights from BA Dissertation, 2003) |
By: Roger Hansford |
INTRODUCTION TO THEOMUSICOLOGY
Four E minor chords raise the Mass out of the preceding silence as priest and deacons process through the church, swinging the incense brazier to dotted duple rhythm:
Come in-to our lives, Light of the Nations;
come in-to our lives, Hope of the Poor;
come in-to our hearts, fill us with gladness;
come in-to our hearts, bring us your peace.
Watching with the grieving, praying by their side, this is our life, (v.5)
this we can do, working for the coming of the king-dom!
(Inwood, 1997)
So begins another Mass in Waterside Catholic Parish, another season of Advent, and another year of liturgical music on the eastern edge of the New Forest, as the song unites the people in preparation for asking forgiveness, hearing scripture and celebrating the communal Eucharist (GIA Publications 1988). ‘It’s not just about Christ coming into our lives’, said composer, Paul Inwood, ‘but our lives have to be changed by that, and there are things that we need to do to work for the coming of the Kingdom . . . Advent being in my view not a penitential season, but when we’re waiting in joyful hope.’
Thus Inwood’s Advent Gathering Song was written for a specific functional stage of a religious service, a service with its own unique place in an ecclesiastical year. The song combines with other liturgical actions to fulfil the wider denominational tenets of a particular congregation, within a particular parish. Such contextualisation is defined by Jon Michael Spencer as ‘Theomusicology’, and by Edward Foley as ‘Liturgical Musicology’ (Foley 1995:10). Foley (pp.9-15) describes a scholarly stream approaching church music in the ‘relativist’ spirit of Ethnomusicology: music may be open to criticism but denominational doctrine is not, since this provides the framework in which the sound of the Liturgy operates.
What is ‘liturgy’? ‘Liturgy’ derives from the Greek leitourgia, denoting ‘work’, ‘service of the Gods’, or ‘ordered and public worship’ (Bowker 2002:214); ‘worship’ is a bodily expression of faith in God (Finnegan 1997:266-7). Although ‘liturgy’ is an evasive concept, seen to occur ‘in Jesus Christ’, and to be as much ‘a divine glorification of man’ as ‘a human glorification of God’ (Jones et al 1978:28-9,495), it may be least problematic to academia when viewed as a formal expression of faith palpable to the human senses (Gray 1981:1).
My investigation of the sound of liturgy in Waterside Catholic Parish and The Parish of Fawley (C of E) may therefore claim to document a manifestation of faith in the locality. To decide which Parish has the music most useful for purpose required an assessment of the liturgical frameworks and of the role music plays in worship. The original dissertation, completed in 2003, included a considerable amount of musical analysis, and this can be read in full by contacting the author. My acknowledgements appear at the end of the article.
LITURGICAL FRAMEWORKS
In his book The Lord’s Song in Strange Land, Jeffrey Summitt (1999) describes how Jewish worshippers at several American churches have made different interpretations of their traditional nusach, creating church services with very differing musical and religious identities. In a similar way, my project compared the uses of music at two contrasting parishes in the New Forest, both of which held Sunday morning services based around a typical structure. Although there were differences in the services used at Christmas and Easter, and for Sunday evenings in the Anglican Parish, the following explanation of the Catholic Mass from the 1970 General Instruction on the Roman Missal (Withey 1990:116) helped to provide a basis for comparison.
Of the two main parts of Mass, the Liturgy of the Word is based on a synagogue service of prayers and readings, and the Liturgy of the Eucharist is ‘from the Lord’s words and actions at the Last Supper’ (Jones 1978:181). Mass begins with the Introductory Rites. The Gathering Hymn raises the congregation from their secular world into a conscious state of sacred celebration (Deiss 1976:125-6). During the hymn – which should be celebratory and seasonal in nature (Funk 1983:91) – the priest processes through the Church, emphasising his unity with the people (Withey 1990:120-1). The Penitential Rite, incorporating the Kyrie, enables congregants to repent their sins from the past week (Withey 1990:122), and should not be unduly elaborate (Funk 1983:93). The Gloria, omitted during Advent and Lent, is a ‘festive’ hymn of praise (Funk 1983:93). Restrictions on its use have always marked the Gloria’s specialness; originally it could be employed only at Easter or when a Bishop led the service (Jones 1978:183).
During the Liturgy of the Word music should ‘develop and complete’ God’s divine action through scripture, allowing the congregation to respond (Funk 1983:86). The Responsorial Psalm, different each Sunday, should never itself be spoken if it is to enliven the readings either side of it (Gray 1981:51). The Deacon’s reading from Matthew, Mark or Luke is surrounded by the Gospel Acclamation. This accompanies actions of reverence including the processing, incensing and kissing of the book. (Withey 1990:129) The ‘Alleluia’ text means ‘praise Yahweh’ (Deiss 1976:140), and if not sung it ‘should be omitted’ (Funk 1983:90). The Creed and Prayer of the Faithful, which follow the Homily, are spoken in Waterside Parish.
Attention switches from ambo to altar as bread and wine are collected for the Liturgy of the Eucharist. Silence or instrumental music would be acceptable here, but Waterside Parish always sings a Preparation of Gifts Hymn, with Eucharistic text. Music should then emphasise the importance of the Eucharistic Prayer (Withey 1990:148), the apogee of celebration, including three sung responses. With the same acclamatory character as the Gloria, the Holy, Holy allows congregants to echo the priest’s ‘note of exultation’ during the preface dialogue (Gray 1981:58), and joins their worship to that of ‘the whole communion of saints’ (Funk 1983:90). The text itself reveals Isaiah’s vision of the angels, and evokes Jesus’ joyful entry into Jerusalem (Gray 1981:58). The Memorial Acclamation, following the consecration, is a solemn proclamation of belief in the paschal mystery, and the Great Amen enables congregants to make the entire Eucharistic Prayer their own (Funk 1983:91).
Following the Lord’s Prayer and Sign of Peace, the breaking of bread is accompanied by the Lamb of God. Although ‘not necessarily a song of the people’ (Funk 1983:93), this is always sung collectively in Waterside Parish, as Father Lyons believes choirs should support, not replace, congregational participation. A Communion Hymn is then sung to express joy at the distribution of Eucharist; to promote unity it should be easy to sing (Funk 1983:91-2). During the Concluding Rites the congregation promise to fulfil the message of the Mass over the coming week. Although never officially ‘part of the rite’, the Recessional Hymn sung by Waterside avoids the need for solo instrumental music during the ‘one continuous action’ of dismissal, culminating with the priest’s individual farewells at the church door (Funk 1983:87).
TOWARDS A ‘FULLY HUMAN LITURGY’:
MUSIC AND ITS ROLE IN CHRISTIAN WORSHIP
There is no fully human life and therefore no fully human liturgy without music. (Arnold 2002:17)
The Christian liturgy was born singing, and it has never ceased to sing. (Jones 1978:440)
Music in the liturgy is very important to members of the two New Forest parishes. Anglicans of Fawley Parish, asked to prioritise six aspects of a church service, placed ‘the music’ before either ‘the sermon’, ‘the Bible readings’, ‘the spoken prayers’ or ‘the church building’. Congregants at All Saints’ felt music took precedence even over ‘the clergy’, making it, for them, the single most important aspect of a service. Although Waterside Catholic Parish congregants collectively rated music much lower, individuals indicated its importance. One female choir member chose Midnight Mass as her favourite service because ‘it represents the promise of the future and the music reflects this’, while a female congregant wrote that Christmas carols ‘remind me of my childhood and what being Christian is all about’. The music of the liturgy, it seems, is central to the faith of these worshippers.
This is as it should be according to comments from Church staff during interviews. Father Ray Lyons believes that music adds a ‘quality to worship’ which ‘simply isn’t there without it’. He said it ‘touches us’ and allows us to ‘use the whole of our being, and not just the intellectual bit, to praise God’, because it ‘goes to the core of what we are’ and helps us ‘transcend our limitations’. It also ‘helps people to deepen their understanding of our faith, and the nature of God, and what it is to be Church, and from that to be infused to go out and fulfil our basic baptismal requirement, which is to spread the Kingdom of God on earth’. Music, he said, is ‘absolutely essential in giving the emotional and personal courage to be able to go out and do that’.
Paul Inwood also described music as an ‘integral’ part of celebration. It helps people ‘grow together through sung prayer, coming closer to God as a community’, he said, and it creates ‘the conditions in which God can speak to us’ by ‘raising people to a different level, drawing them closer together . . . highlighting the text . . . slowing people down in the midst of a busy world . . . [and] setting a mood’. Revd. Stephne van der Toorn also believes music ‘allows God to speak to people’, and ‘helps people in the sense that it gives them what they expect, so when they come to Church they’re not being challenged by something that’s going to frighten them’. She called music a ‘wonderful ministry’ because it ‘makes people aware of His presence, in a special way that talking will never do’.
How do congregations feel? I based a section of my survey on that from In Tune With Heaven (Cantuar & Ebor 1992:278), and found similar results (p.77). Waterside Catholics and Anglicans both believed that the main role of liturgical music is ‘to worship and praise God’, and agreed that its next most important roles are ‘to unite the congregation’ and ‘to establish mood’. Catholics found it more important for music to ‘help people to pray’ than Anglicans, while Anglicans believed it was more important for music to ‘intensify the words’ and ‘make the seasonal theme clear’ than Catholics. Music’s role ‘to boost faith’ was attributed surprisingly low significance, as were ‘to create rhythm in the ritual’ and ‘to please the congregation’. Both denominations agreed that music’s least important role is ‘to evangelise visitors’, although this could have been awarded higher priority.
How is it that music can fulfil these many roles and add so much to Christian liturgy? Particularly for Catholics, it combines with word and gesture to make up the signs and symbols of rites which ‘awake meaning and induce an attitude’ (Jones 1978:441). Music is especially ‘united’ to the words of liturgy, solemnizing prayer (Abbott 1966:171) to increase the ‘splendour’ of the ceremony and enhance the effectiveness of the text (Deiss 1976:13-17). Congregants hear the word and music, see the church architecture and clergy vestments, touch each other at the Sign of Peace, smell the incense, and taste the bread and wine. Something integral to this ‘rhythm of ritual’ (Dean 1993:121), music helps join the congregation to the liturgy (Gray 1981:4) via their five senses. As Colin Thompson (Robertson 1990:33) puts it, ‘God wants us to worship him as human beings, not as disembodied spirits’.
This links to the fact that music is a form of human art. Art ‘enhances the liturgy with beauty’ (Deiss 1976:17) and, as an emotional elicitor, helps to engage the whole being in worship (Jones 1978:443). As George Odam (1995:91) writes, ‘religious ideas are more accessible - perhaps even more believable - in a musical context than through speech and logical argument’. Music therefore ‘deepens our response in worship and enables us to approach God with more complete joy’, leading to a ‘more noble’ form of prayer; hence the famous ‘he who sings well prays twice’ (Gray 1981:3-4). By prefiguring heavenly beauty (Deiss 1976:18), art helps join human worship to the everlasting worship by the angels (Robertson 1990:6). Art is also appropriate to liturgy because it offers our ‘God-given creativity’ back to God and, not being our conventional manner of expression, it ‘marks the specialness’ of worship (Harper 2000:18).
Certain characteristics of music make it, for the Church, ‘greater even than . . . any other art’ (Abbott 1966:171). Music creates unity by fusing the myriad voices of the assembly into one (Jones 1978:441), ensuring congregational participation, and illustrating the Anglican pre-communion affirmation that ‘though we are many, we are one body, because we all share in one bread’. More revealing is Jeremy Begbie’s Theology, Music and Time (2000), which discusses how music can enact theology and root it in the physical world. He argues that sonic art – unlike visual art – is not dependent upon place, but is spatially omnipresent and inescapable (pp.24-5), perhaps reflecting the omniscience of God. He also suggests that the tension followed by resolution in musical harmony demonstrates eschatology, the Christian drive towards eventual salvation (pp.98-127).
Begbie’s argument relies on the fact that, as temporal art, music reveals to humans their ‘time-embedded’ position within the created universe (pp.29-35). Like life, he explains, music gains meaning when its unfolding series of tones is ‘lived through’ by the listener (p.30). Each tone has its place within a bar, the bar within a phrase, and the phrase within a formal section, producing – at any audible point – a ‘multiplicity of temporal continua’ (pp.35,39-44). In this way music mirrors the idea of anamnesis captured by the ‘Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again’ acclamation; Eucharist simultaneously commemorates the Last Supper and anticipates the Second Coming, but congregants always taste bread and wine in the present. This example of the ‘theological capabilities’ (p.7) of music is one of the most attractive explanations for music’s benefit to liturgy.
THE WATERSIDE AND ITS CHURCHES
WATERSIDE CATHOLIC PARISH
Part of Portsmouth Diocese, Waterside is the sole Catholic Parish for the area, and plans to replace its churches of St. Michael’s, Hythe and St. Bernard’s, Holbury with a new building at Westcliff Hall, Hythe. The Parish budget is £130,000, and the mission is ‘Communion - Service - Witness’. Half of the regular congregation, totalling 400, is aged under 35; one third is under twenty.
Liturgy planning is undertaken by the St. Stephen (Liturgy) Group and the St. Cecelia (Music) Group, formed in 1996. The Parish has been trying to recruit a Music Director for two years, but has a Music Co-ordinator. Father Lyons said, ‘the principal aim [for music] is to enable the congregation more fittingly to give glory and praise to God . . . the second is to meet the human need for good ritual, which is predictable, repetitive . . . which we can do without thinking’. The St. Michael’s Choir, comprising about fifteen adults, undertakes weekly rehearsals and attends Diocesan training sessions.
Most weekday masses use the minimum of music, but there are full sung masses on the eight major feast days of the year. There are three styles of Sunday mass in the Parish. Best attended is the 9.00 a.m. Family Mass at St. Bernard’s, using cantor, clavinova and guitar for an upbeat children’s service. The 11.00 a.m. St. Michael’s Sung Mass uses choir and clavinova for a traditional celebration aimed at the older age groups. The 7.00 p.m. St. Michael’s Taizé-style Mass, using chants from the French Taizé Community, is a reflective service led by solo flautist and attended mainly by under-25s.
THE PARISH OF FAWLEY
Part of Winchester Diocese, and with a regular congregation of 125, Fawley is one of the four Church of England Parishes serving 800 Anglicans on the Waterside. The Parish budget is £80,000. The Parish mission is ‘to exercise the ministry of Jesus Christ in our own neighbourhood, and to share in the wider ministry of the Church in the World. This ministry includes worship, prayer, fellowship, mission and service’.
Situated adjacent to the largest oil refinery in the UK, All Saints’ Church, Fawley dates from Norman times, having survived Luftwaffe bombing in 1940. The Bishop & White electric organ was last overhauled in 1989. The church offers a programme of concerts by local ensembles and soloists, and is the venue for around 25 marriages per year. The churches of The Good Shepherd, Holbury, St. Francis’, Langley, and St. George’s, Calshot, are modern buildings.
Monthly music lists are planned by Rector, Revd. Barry James, and Music Director, Sue Ogden, but all six Parish pianists can contribute at occasional Musicians’ Meetings. Revd. van der Toorn aims to, ‘present worship and the Gospel in a way that is glorifying to God and user-friendly’, and Revd. James said music should ‘enrich the worship’ and ‘enable the people of the church to discover for themselves how best they can worship’. Central to Parish musical life is the All Saints’ Choir, which rehearses weekly, and has performed throughout southern England. Many of the 38 members, aged seven to 70, follow the Royal School of Church Music (RSCM) “Voice for Life” training scheme; several choristers belong to Southern Cathedral Singers.
Most Sundays begin with 9.30 a.m. Eucharist at All Saints’, using grand piano, organ and choir, followed by 10.00 a.m. Eucharist at The Good Shepherd, using piano, and 11.00 a.m. Eucharist at St. Francis’, using the new clavinova. One of these services may be designated an ‘All Age Worship with Baptism’, at which the choice of music is geared towards newcomers. St. George’s, equipped with a small keyboard, is used for occasional services only. The first Sunday of the month begins with an 8.00 a.m. service of Holy Communion at All Saints’ which, like weekday prayer services, has no music. Each of the four churches is used on a rota basis for the first Sunday 10 a.m. Eucharist, attended by the whole Parish. This service is accompanied by the Music Group - piano, cello, French horn, flutes and violins - which was formed, mainly from choristers, in September 2001. First Sundays end with 6.30 p.m. Evensong at All Saints’, using choir, organ and piano.
CONCLUSION: WHICH PARISH IS BEST SERVED BY ITS MUSIC?
Sound structure is a symbolic reality which does reflect the social reality in which it functions, but it also serves to rehearse, perpetuate, and even create that reality as well. (Foley 1995:151)
To aid my judgement of the Parishes I enabled each, through fieldwork, to self-assess the quality of its music. Father Lyons identified several improvements to be made in Waterside Parish, including ‘larger music groups, with some stronger voices’, more creative use of the clavinovas, more accompanists, a larger music budget, and overall planning to include all three styles of Mass. He was pleased, however, with the ‘amount of music that is participatory’, and ‘which enables the wider body of the community to worship and be involved’, as well as ‘the process of planning and the sheer involvement of the numbers of people’, particularly in the absence of a Music Director. Waterside congregants commented: ‘the choir are good in all aspects of church music’, ‘professionally done by dedicated people’, and ‘when full choir assembled the volume of sound is quite acceptable and tuneful, encouraging one to sing along with them’. Comments on improvements were: ‘more people playing music’, ‘more male singers, more young singers’, ‘the hymns could be sung quicker’, ‘choir singing complicated psalms which no-one can follow or understand’, and ‘a choir behind you sounds better than a choir in front’.
In Fawley Parish, Revd. James is ‘relieved and very pleased’ that ‘the approach taken by everyone involved is to enable the worship of the Church’, not to ‘perform or to offer elitist music that relates in no way to the congregation’. He feels the music choices follow RSCM guidelines, praises the enrichment and ‘variety’ offered by Choir and Music Group, and is glad ‘we’re beginning to sing within our limitations’ at services without the Choir. He called the All Saints’ organ ‘a bit limiting’ and hopes to offer more Music Group accompaniment to tackle ‘the absence of young people within the Church other than the Choir’. Revd. van der Toorn admires ‘the enormous amount of dedication that goes into the music’, although she believes ‘we’re not teaching people new things enough’. She can find Fawley’s music ‘cold’ and ‘inhibiting’ compared with that of her South African parish, where ‘you never just sang a plain hymn . . . it was whole body expression of worship’. Fawley congregants praised the Choir and organists, the varied repertoire, and the fact that ‘congregation can join in or listen’, but felt that ‘more modern and jolly music’ is needed, and suggested improvements to the organ and pianos, and to the congregational singing and Choir voice projection.
Although contextually informative, these results alone fail to show which Parish is most successful. This is due not just to the ambivalence of the answers but also the fallibility of the questionnaires as research method. The logistical difficulty of arranging questionnaire sessions around a worship service made many of the responses hurried and incomplete. Comments could have been influenced by the fact I was researcher and organist on the Sundays in question. Statistical results are imbalanced, as the Anglican sample represents two complete congregations constituting 33% of that Parish, while the Catholic sample represents just half a single congregation, constituting 13% of that Parish. This means the majority of congregants in either Parish had no opportunity to comment. While the clergy interviews are more likely to be reliable, it appears the conclusion must rest on the music itself.
My analysis has presented two very different music cultures: the modern, participatory music of Waterside Parish, and the largely traditional and more elaborate music of Fawley Parish. This assessment, though, may not be free from bias, for unavoidably I approach the music as keyboard player rather than as singer. To ensure the reliability of my conclusion, I employ Foley’s (1995:148) analytical paradigm that
it may be possible to draw parallels between the musical structure or organization of a piece of worship music (or, better, a genre of worship music) and the ecclesiastical structure or image expressed and created by such music.
The most common genre within the services of Waterside Parish is ‘responsory’, with a congregational refrain or response initiated by priest or choir; such acclamations are prioritised both by the Bishops’ Conference schema, and by questionnaire respondents. This suggests an ‘ecclesiological image’ in which leadership and assembly are interdependent, but ministry is achieved via leadership (pp.158-60). The key genres within Fawley Parish services are hymns and anthems. As a genre where ‘only the assembly is singing’, hymns make the assembly ritually self-sufficient, performing ministry ‘for and to itself’ (pp.153-4). As a situation in which ‘musical-liturgical forces separate from the assembly sing’, anthems make integral to ritual a form with greater ‘mustering of musical imagination and skill’ than anything congregational (pp.154,156).
Firstly, Foley’s applied paradigm facilitates the conclusion that each Parish meets its own aims, not just - as clergy suggest - because of the people involved, but also through the music itself. In making congregational singing integral to ritual, Waterside’s characteristic ‘responsory’ forms ‘enable’ the people to worship and - because they respond to leadership - to do this ‘without thinking’. In Fawley Parish, the self-ministry of hymns enables each congregant to ‘discover for themselves how best they can worship’, and the artistically-superior anthems allow music to ‘enrich’ the worship. In this way the music meets the aims set out by each respective member of the clergy during their interviews.
Secondly, Foley’s applied paradigm leads towards the decision as to which Parish is best served by its music. Seemingly presumptuous, such a denouement is justifiable for a conclusion relying more heavily on musicological methods than on ethnomusicological methods. Although Waterside has three distinct styles of Mass, the participatory music homogenous within each could become ‘predictable, repetitive’: conducive perhaps for the ‘good ritual’ desired by Father Lyons, but less so for music as emotional elicitor. In contrast, the variety of repertoire and inclusive mix of performance styles employed across Fawley Parish will allow their proposed expansion of youth-oriented music to work alongside traditional choir-only items. Within the creative liturgy these free music to demonstrate the beauty which inspires and expresses faith as sonic reality.
Hark, the glad sound! The Saviour comes, the Saviour promised long;
Let every heart prepare a throne, amd every voice a song!
(RSCM Publishing, Philip Doddridge/Walford Davies)
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Williams, Maurice (1982) ‘Music in Worship’ in R. C. D. Jasper (Ed.) Getting the Liturgy Right: Practical Liturgical Principles for Today. London: Joint Liturgical Group/SPCK.
CATHOLIC MUSIC PUBLICATIONS
Batastini, Robert J. & Michael A. Cymbala (Eds.) (1994) Gather Comprehensive. Choir Edition. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications.
Boulton-Smith, Geoffrey (Ed.) (1985) Music for the Mass. Choir Edition. London: Geoffrey Chapman.
Boulton-Smith, Geoffrey & Christopher McCurry (Eds.) (1993) Music for the Mass 2. London: Geoffrey Chapman.
Dean, Stephen (Ed.) (1991) The Complete Celebration Hymnal with New Songs of Celebration. Full Music Combined Edition. Great Wakering: McCrimmon Publishing.
Dean, Stephen, (Ed.) (1992) The Great Week: Music and Resources for Holy Week and Easter. Revised Ed. Great Wakering: McCrimmon Publishing.
Forster, Michael & Robert B. Kelly (Eds.) (1996) This is the Feast: Words, Music and Resources for Making Holy Week Happen. Bury St Edmunds: Kevin Mayhew.
Haugen, Marty (1985) Mass of Creation. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications.
Inwood, Paul (1997) MillenniumMass. Portsmouth: Magnificat Music.
Moore, Andrew (Ed.) (1998) Psalms for Sunday: Responsorial Psalms for the Catholic Lectionary. Bury St Edmunds: Kevin Mayhew Ltd.
ANGLICAN MUSIC PUBLICATIONS
Appleford, Patrick (1973) New English Mass: Music for the Order of Holy Communion. 20th Century Church Light Music Group. London: Weinberger.
Canterbury Press (1994) Hymns Ancient and Modern Revised. Norwich: The Canterbury Press.
Fudge, Roland, Peter Horobin & Greg Leavers (Eds.) (1983) Mission Praise. Music Edition. London: Marshall Morgan & Scott.
Hymns Ancient and Modern (1983) Hymns for Today: A Supplement to Hymns Ancient and Modern. London: Hymns Ancient and Modern.
Shepherd, Richard (1983) The Addington Service: The Alternative Service Book 1980 Rite A. Croydon: RSCM.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Foremost among those I have to thank are my four interviewees: Father Ray Lyons, Paul Inwood, Revd. Barry James and Revd. Stephne van der Toorn, who took time to give me considerable insight into the main issues. I am also grateful for the information offered informally by Revd. Canon John Alderman, Revd. John Curtis, Revd. Keith Page and Pastor Jim Palmer. Thanks in this regard to Tony Holywell, Choir member at St. Johns’, Hythe; also to Revd. Gary Philbrick, Parish of Swaythling, for his advice on sources. I gained much from the academic advice from University of Southampton Music Department staff: my supervisor, Jeanice Brooks; my personal tutor, Michael Finnissy; David Nicholls and Mark Everist; also Rebecca Berkley and Abigail Wood for their advice on completing urban fieldwork. Thanks to my father, R. J. Hansford, Information & Local Studies Librarian at Hythe Library, who provided sources, and suggested this topic in the first place. Finally, thanks to the parishioners of my local churches: for completing my questionnaires, and for so much more over the last seven years.